Software (प्रक्रिया सामग्री / सॉफ्टवेयर) is the set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do. Hardware without software is a 'brick'; software without hardware is just a file.
| Category | What it is | Examples | Hindi |
|---|---|---|---|
| System software — Operating System | Manages hardware, files, memory, users and runs other programs | Windows 11, macOS Sequoia, Ubuntu/Linux, Android 15, iOS 18, ChromeOS | प्रचालन तंत्र |
| System software — Utilities | Maintain the computer | Antivirus, Disk Cleanup, Defragmenter, Task Manager, WinRAR, backup tools | उपयोगिता |
| System software — Device drivers | Let the OS talk to a specific device | Printer driver, graphics driver (Nvidia/AMD), Wi-Fi driver | डिवाइस चालक |
| System software — Language processors | Translate code | Compiler (C, Java), Interpreter (Python, JS), Assembler | भाषा संसाधक |
| Firmware | Software burned into hardware | BIOS/UEFI, router firmware, TV firmware | फर्मवेयर |
| Application software — General | Everyday tasks | MS Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Chrome, VLC, Photoshop, WhatsApp | अनुप्रयोग सॉफ्टवेयर |
| Application software — Specific / custom | Built for one organisation | IRCTC booking, bank core software, school ERP, Tally | — |
| Open source vs proprietary | Source code free to see/modify vs closed | Linux, Firefox, LibreOffice, VLC vs Windows, MS Office, Photoshop | मुक्त स्रोत |
| Freeware / Shareware / Trial / Subscription | Licensing models | Free (VLC) · pay after trial (WinRAR) · monthly (Microsoft 365, Adobe) | — |
| Malware | Harmful software | Virus, worm, trojan, ransomware (WannaCry 2017), spyware, adware, keylogger | दुर्भावनापूर्ण सॉफ्टवेयर |
Functions of an Operating System
- IProcess management — decides which program gets the CPU and for how long (scheduling, multitasking).
- IIMemory management — allocates RAM, uses virtual memory/paging.
- IIIFile management — files, folders, permissions (NTFS, FAT32, exFAT, ext4, APFS).
- IVDevice management — drivers, plug-and-play, spooling (printer queue).
- VUser interface — CLI (CMD, Terminal) and GUI (desktop, windows, icons, menus).
- VISecurity — login, passwords, user accounts, firewall, updates.
- VIINetworking — TCP/IP stack, Wi-Fi, sharing.
Boot process (what happens when you press the power button)
- IPower On → PSU sends 'Power Good' signal → CPU starts executing firmware from the UEFI/BIOS chip.
- IIPOST (Power-On Self-Test) checks CPU, RAM, keyboard, GPU — beeps or an error code if something is wrong.
- IIIFirmware finds the boot device (SSD/HDD/USB) from the boot order and loads the bootloader (Windows Boot Manager / GRUB).
- IVBootloader loads the OS kernel (ntoskrnl.exe / vmlinuz) into RAM.
- VKernel starts drivers and services, then the login screen; after login, the desktop/shell (explorer.exe) appears.
- VICold boot = from power-off. Warm boot = restart (Ctrl+Alt+Del). Windows 11 boots in ~10–15 s on an NVMe SSD.
Operating system history
| Year | OS | Note |
|---|---|---|
| 1956 | GM-NAA I/O | First OS (for IBM 704) |
| 1969 | UNIX | Bell Labs; multi-user; written in C from 1973 |
| 1981 | MS-DOS 1.0 | Command line; bought by Microsoft for $75,000 (as 86-DOS) |
| 1984 | Mac OS (System 1) | First mass-market GUI OS |
| 1985–95 | Windows 1.0 → 3.1 → 95 | 95 added Start menu, taskbar, Plug and Play |
| 1991 | Linux 0.01 | Linus Torvalds, Finland; now powers 96% of top servers & all supercomputers |
| 1993 | Windows NT | Base of every modern Windows |
| 2001 | Windows XP · Mac OS X | XP: most loved Windows, supported till 2014 |
| 2007–08 | iOS · Android | Mobile era |
| 2009 | Windows 7 · ChromeOS announced | |
| 2012 | Windows 8 | Touch tiles; unpopular |
| 2015 | Windows 10 | Free upgrade; support ended Oct 2025 |
| 2021 | Windows 11 | TPM 2.0 required; centred taskbar; Copilot AI (2023) |
| 2024–26 | Android 15/16, iOS 18/26, macOS Sequoia/Tahoe | On-device AI features everywhere |
// Keep exploring
All chapters →